Australia and New Zealand are often compared because they sit close to each other, use English as the main language of instruction, offer recognized universities, allow eligible students to work while studying, and provide post-study work options after graduation. However, the two countries are not interchangeable. Australia is larger, more competitive, more expensive, and has a deeper job market. New Zealand is smaller, calmer, more direct in some immigration settings, and often attractive to students who want a quieter study environment with clear post-study options.
For applicants, the choice between Australia and New Zealand should not be based only on scenery, weather, or social media impressions. Students need to compare tuition, living costs, visa requirements, work rights, graduate visa rules, permanent residence pathways, scholarship opportunities, job-market depth, city size, lifestyle, and field demand. A country can be beautiful and still be the wrong choice if the course is expensive, the job market is too small, or the graduate route does not match the student’s field.
Australia may be better for students who want a wider university selection, larger cities, stronger employer networks, broader course options, and skilled migration planning in fields such as nursing, engineering, teaching, IT, construction, public health, and trades. New Zealand may be better for students who want a smaller environment, clear post-study work rules, a calmer lifestyle, and pathways connected to Green List occupations such as healthcare, engineering, construction, teaching, and selected technical roles. The best decision depends on the student’s budget, field, work goals, and long-term migration plan.
Australia vs New Zealand in Quick Comparison
Australia is the larger study destination. It has more universities, more international students, more major cities, more course options, and a bigger labour market. Cities such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Hobart, Gold Coast, Newcastle, and Wollongong offer different academic and employment environments. This gives students more choice, but it also means more competition and higher costs in major cities.
New Zealand is smaller and more compact. It has fewer universities, fewer major cities, and a smaller labour market, but it can feel more manageable for students who want a quieter environment. Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Hamilton, Dunedin, Palmerston North, and other student cities offer different experiences. The country is attractive to students who value safety, nature, smaller communities, and more direct immigration explanations.
| Factor | Australia | New Zealand |
|---|---|---|
| Main advantage | Larger university system, bigger labour market, stronger city variety | Smaller system, clearer environment, calmer lifestyle, structured post-study route |
| Tuition | Often high, especially at major universities and professional programs | Often slightly more moderate, but still not a low-cost destination |
| Living costs | High in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Canberra | High in Auckland and Wellington, more moderate in some smaller cities |
| Work while studying | Usually up to 48 hours per fortnight while course is in session | Eligible students may work up to 25 hours per week |
| Post-study work | Temporary Graduate visa for eligible graduates, with stricter age, cost, and stream rules | Post Study Work Visa for eligible graduates, usually up to 3 years depending on qualification |
| Job market | Larger and more diverse | Smaller but can be strong in shortage areas |
| PR planning | Skilled migration, state nomination, regional pathways, employer sponsorship | Skilled Migrant Category, Green List, accredited employer routes |
| Best fields | Nursing, engineering, teaching, IT, construction, public health, trades, business | Nursing, healthcare, engineering, teaching, construction, agriculture, IT, environmental fields |
| Lifestyle | Bigger cities, warmer climate, coastal lifestyle, more competition | Smaller cities, outdoor lifestyle, calmer pace, fewer openings |
The basic comparison is simple. Australia gives students more scale, more cities, more employers, more universities, and more professional options. New Zealand gives students a smaller and often more straightforward environment, but students must accept that the job market is narrower. Australia can be more powerful for ambitious career growth. New Zealand can be more manageable for students who choose shortage-linked fields carefully.
Tuition and Study Costs
Australia and New Zealand are both more expensive than low-tuition destinations such as Germany, Italy, Poland, France, Czech Republic, Türkiye, Malaysia, or Taiwan. Neither country should be treated as a cheap study abroad option. Students considering either destination should prepare a serious financial plan before applying.
Australia’s tuition is often higher, especially at major universities and in professional programs. Medicine, dentistry, veterinary science, pharmacy, business, engineering, law, and some health-related programs can be expensive. Group of Eight universities and major city institutions may also charge higher international fees, although program-level differences matter more than university reputation alone.
New Zealand tuition can sometimes be slightly more moderate, but it is still not cheap. Degree-level programs in health, engineering, business, science, IT, education, and professional fields can still require a significant budget. Students should also compare whether the course qualifies for post-study work and whether it aligns with a long-term employment plan before choosing a program only because tuition looks lower.
A practical cost comparison should include:
- First-year tuition and full program duration.
- Visa application cost and required financial evidence.
- Health insurance or overseas student health cover.
- Rent, bond, deposits, utilities, and transport.
- Food, phone, study materials, uniforms, software, and equipment.
- Flight cost and distance from home.
- Post-study visa application cost after graduation.
- Expected income from legal student work, without relying on it for visa proof.
Living Costs and City Choice
Australia’s living costs vary sharply by city. Sydney and Melbourne are usually the most expensive student cities, especially for rent. Brisbane, Perth, Canberra, Adelaide, Hobart, Gold Coast, Newcastle, Wollongong, and regional university towns may offer different cost profiles. A student’s budget can change significantly depending on whether they study in a major city, regional area, or smaller university town.
Australia’s advantage is that larger cities usually offer more part-time jobs, internships, networking, and graduate employment opportunities. The disadvantage is that rent and daily expenses can rise quickly in those same cities. A student may find more jobs in Sydney or Melbourne but spend much more on accommodation. A regional student may save money but face a smaller job market.
New Zealand also has city-level cost differences. Auckland is usually the largest and most expensive city. Wellington can also be costly, especially for housing. Christchurch, Hamilton, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Tauranga, and other cities may be more manageable depending on university and accommodation availability. New Zealand’s smaller scale can make life calmer, but fewer cities means fewer alternatives if housing becomes difficult.
Students should not compare Australia and New Zealand only at country level. Compare Sydney with Auckland, Melbourne with Wellington, Brisbane with Christchurch, Adelaide with Dunedin, or Perth with Hamilton. City choice may decide whether the destination is affordable or stressful.
Student Visa Requirements
Australia and New Zealand both require students to show that they are genuine students with enough money to support themselves. Admission alone is not enough. A student can receive an offer from a university and still face visa problems if financial documents are weak, study purpose is unclear, health requirements are not met, or the course does not fit the student’s background.
Australia uses the Student visa subclass 500. Students generally need enrolment in a CRICOS-registered course, financial capacity, Overseas Student Health Cover, identity documents, health and character requirements, and a credible Genuine Student explanation. Australia has tightened its student system in recent years, so weak courses, unclear intentions, poor documentation, or suspicious provider choices can create problems.
New Zealand’s student visa process also requires students to show offer of place, funds for living costs and tuition, travel arrangements or funds, health and character requirements, and genuine intent. Students should check whether their course and institution are approved and whether the visa conditions allow work. New Zealand may feel less crowded than Australia, but the visa process still requires strong documents.
For both countries, students should prepare:
- Offer letter from a recognized institution.
- Clear financial evidence for tuition and living costs.
- Health insurance or medical coverage where required.
- Academic documents that support the chosen course.
- Honest explanation of study purpose and future plans.
- Sponsor documents if a parent, guardian, or relative is funding the study.
- Consistent names, dates, transcripts, and identity records.
- No fake bank statements, fake employment letters, or misleading claims.
Work While Studying
Australia allows student visa holders to work up to 48 hours per fortnight while their course is in session. During official course breaks, students can usually work more hours, subject to visa conditions. This fortnightly limit can give students some flexibility across two weeks, but it also requires careful tracking. A student who works too many hours risks breaching visa conditions.
New Zealand is increasing student work flexibility. Eligible tertiary students may work up to 25 hours per week during the academic year if their visa conditions allow it. Students may also work full time during scheduled breaks depending on the program and visa conditions. PhD and research master’s students may have broader work rights in some cases.
On work rights alone, New Zealand’s weekly structure may feel simpler, while Australia’s fortnightly structure gives flexibility across two weeks. Australia’s larger economy may offer more part-time jobs in hospitality, retail, warehouses, care support, delivery, administration, tutoring, events, and campus roles. New Zealand’s smaller market may offer fewer openings, but students in the right city and sector can still find work.
Students should not choose either country expecting part-time work to pay for the entire degree. Work income can help with groceries, phone bills, transport, study materials, and some rent support, but visa systems expect students to have funds before arrival. Part-time work is a support layer, not the foundation of the whole budget.
Post-Study Work Options
Post-study work is one of the biggest reasons students compare Australia and New Zealand. Australia’s main graduate work route is the Temporary Graduate visa, subclass 485. The Post-Higher Education Work stream allows eligible graduates with Australian qualifications to live, study, and work temporarily after completing their course. The route can be valuable, but it has become stricter and more expensive.
Australia’s Temporary Graduate visa rules now require careful planning around age, qualification, English results, stream choice, timing, and visa cost. Most applicants must be under 35 at the time of application, although exceptions exist for some groups such as master’s by research graduates, doctoral graduates, and certain passport holders. The visa fee increase from March 2026 has also made the route a bigger financial decision for graduates.
New Zealand’s Post Study Work Visa allows eligible graduates to stay and work for up to three years depending on what they studied. It is usually easier to understand than Australia’s stream-heavy system, but eligibility depends on qualification level, study length, whether the qualification is approved, and whether the student applies within the required period after the student visa expires. From late 2026, some Graduate Diploma holders who meet specific conditions are expected to have expanded eligibility.
New Zealand may feel clearer for students who want a direct post-study work route tied to qualification. Australia may offer a larger job market during the graduate period, but the visa rules and costs are heavier. The better option depends on whether the student’s course qualifies and whether the job market is strong enough for their field.
Permanent Residence and Long-Term Migration
Australia has a larger skilled migration system, but it is also competitive and points-driven. Students may move from study to the Temporary Graduate visa, then pursue skilled migration, state nomination, regional pathways, employer sponsorship, or other routes. Points, age, English scores, occupation lists, skills assessments, work experience, salary, state priorities, and regional study can all matter.
Australia can be strong for students in healthcare, nursing, teaching, engineering, construction, trades, IT, data, cybersecurity, social work, and regional-priority occupations. Students who choose fields connected to skills demand may have a stronger long-term plan than those choosing broad business or general courses without a clear occupation outcome.
New Zealand has skilled residence pathways including the Skilled Migrant Category and Green List routes. The Green List identifies jobs New Zealand needs and separates roles into Tier 1 and Tier 2 pathways. Some Tier 1 roles may support Straight to Residence if the graduate has a qualifying job or job offer, while Tier 2 roles may support Work to Residence after the required work period. The Skilled Migrant Category also connects residence to skilled employment, qualifications, registration, or income.
New Zealand’s pathway may feel clearer for students whose field is on the Green List or strongly connected to skilled employment. However, the smaller job market means the student still needs to secure the right job. Australia may offer more openings, but also more applicants and more complex state or points planning. Neither country gives permanent residence automatically after study.
Scholarships and Funding
Australia has strong scholarship options, especially at postgraduate and research levels. Australia Awards Scholarships are among the most important government-funded routes for eligible students from partner countries. Research Training Program-supported scholarships and university graduate research scholarships can be valuable for master’s by research and PhD students. Major universities also offer merit and faculty scholarships.
Australia may be especially strong for research applicants. Students applying for PhD or research master’s programs should compare University of Melbourne, University of Sydney, Australian National University, UNSW Sydney, Monash University, University of Queensland, University of Adelaide, University of Western Australia, and other research-intensive institutions. Research scholarships may cover tuition and provide living stipends, but competition is high.
New Zealand also offers scholarships, including Manaaki New Zealand Scholarships for eligible partner countries and university scholarships at institutions such as University of Auckland, University of Otago, Victoria University of Wellington, University of Canterbury, Massey University, AUT, Lincoln University, and University of Waikato. Some scholarships target development goals, postgraduate study, research, or specific regions.
Australia usually has more scholarship volume because the system is larger. New Zealand may offer fewer options, but some awards can be generous and more focused. Students should compare scholarship eligibility by nationality, degree level, field, return-home obligations, living allowance, tuition coverage, and whether the award supports dependants.
University Options and Academic Strength
Australia has more universities and more global ranking visibility. The Group of Eight universities are especially well known, but Australia also has strong applied and industry-connected universities outside that group. Students can choose from large research universities, technology universities, regional universities, and applied institutions across several states.
Australian universities are strong in medicine-related fields, nursing, public health, engineering, business, environmental science, agriculture, data, IT, law, education, social sciences, and research. Students who want broad choice may find Australia easier because there are more universities, more campuses, and more specialized programs.
New Zealand has fewer universities, but the system is compact and generally well regarded. The University of Auckland, University of Otago, Victoria University of Wellington, University of Canterbury, Massey University, University of Waikato, Lincoln University, and Auckland University of Technology are the main universities students compare. Each has its own strengths, and the smaller system can make research easier.
New Zealand is strong in agriculture, environmental science, health sciences, education, engineering, business, public policy, tourism, sustainability, marine studies, and research connected to natural resources. Students who want a smaller academic environment may prefer New Zealand. Students who want maximum course variety may prefer Australia.
Job Market and Graduate Employment
Australia has the larger job market. This is one of its biggest advantages. Major cities offer wider opportunities in healthcare, education, construction, engineering, technology, finance, logistics, hospitality, research, consulting, public health, and business services. More employers can mean more internships, part-time roles, graduate programs, and professional networks.
The larger job market also brings more competition. Australia attracts many international students, temporary graduates, skilled migrants, and domestic graduates. Students must build strong CVs, internships, English communication skills, local references, and professional networks before graduation. A large job market does not guarantee a job.
New Zealand’s job market is smaller but can be focused. Shortage areas such as healthcare, nursing, teaching, engineering, construction, infrastructure, agriculture, trades, IT, and some technical roles may offer better prospects. Students in fields aligned with Green List roles may have a clearer long-term plan.
The challenge in New Zealand is that fewer employers and smaller cities can mean fewer openings. A student may need to be flexible about location and willing to move for work. New Zealand is best for students who choose fields with real national demand. Australia is better for students who want larger employer pools and more city options.
Best Fields in Australia
Australia is especially strong for nursing, healthcare, public health, aged care, teaching, engineering, construction, trades, IT, cybersecurity, data science, agriculture, environmental science, social work, architecture, urban planning, and regional development. These fields connect more clearly to employer demand and skilled migration planning than general courses with weak occupation outcomes.
Nursing and healthcare are major areas because Australia has ongoing demand in health and care sectors. Engineering and construction can also be strong because infrastructure, housing, mining, energy, and regional development create labour needs. Teaching may be attractive depending on specialization and state demand.
Computer science, cybersecurity, data science, AI, and IT can be strong in Australian cities, especially Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, Perth, and Adelaide. However, students must build practical skills, internships, portfolios, and employer networks. A degree alone is not enough in competitive tech markets.
Australia is less ideal for students choosing expensive programs with unclear employment outcomes. Business, management, tourism, hospitality, and general degrees can still be useful, but students should connect them to a specific occupation, internship plan, or employer pathway.
Best Fields in New Zealand
New Zealand is especially strong for nursing, healthcare, teaching, engineering, construction, infrastructure, agriculture, environmental science, food science, IT, tourism, sustainability, public health, and applied research. The strongest fields are usually those connected to national shortages, Green List roles, or essential services.
Healthcare and nursing can be strong because New Zealand needs skilled workers in several health-related areas. Teaching may also be useful depending on subject, age level, registration rules, and regional demand. Engineering, construction, and infrastructure-related fields can connect to national development needs.
Agriculture, environmental management, food science, conservation, marine studies, and sustainability can be especially attractive in New Zealand because the country’s economy and geography make these fields relevant. Students interested in outdoor environments, climate, ecology, land systems, and applied science may find New Zealand’s academic setting meaningful.
New Zealand is less ideal for students who want very large corporate job markets or highly specialized industries that exist mainly in bigger economies. Students should check whether their field has enough employers before choosing the country.
Lifestyle and Student Experience
Australia offers bigger cities, warmer weather, beaches, multicultural communities, large campuses, major events, and a more urban international student experience. Students who enjoy city life, large communities, and broad social options may prefer Australia. Sydney and Melbourne are especially popular, but Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Gold Coast, Hobart, and regional cities all offer different lifestyles.
New Zealand offers a quieter lifestyle, smaller cities, outdoor access, nature, mountains, lakes, coastal towns, and a calmer pace. Students who prefer a less crowded environment may feel more comfortable in New Zealand. The country can feel easier to navigate, but some students may find the smaller social and job market limiting.
Climate also matters. Australia is generally warmer, though climate varies widely across states. New Zealand has a milder and more temperate climate, with cooler regions and more changeable weather. Students from tropical countries may find Australia warmer and more familiar, while students who prefer cooler weather may enjoy New Zealand.
Distance from home should also be considered. Both countries are far from Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Flights can be expensive. Students should include travel costs in their budget, especially if they plan to visit home during breaks.
Which Country Is Better for Budget Students?
Neither Australia nor New Zealand is the best option for students on a tight budget. Students who need low tuition should also compare Germany, Italy, Poland, France, Hungary, Türkiye, Malaysia, Taiwan, and other lower-cost destinations. Australia and New Zealand are better for students who have enough funding, strong scholarships, or a clear work and migration strategy.
New Zealand may sometimes feel slightly more manageable because the system is smaller and some costs may be lower outside Auckland and Wellington. However, tuition and living costs are still significant. A student who chooses a city like Dunedin, Christchurch, Hamilton, or Palmerston North may manage costs better than one in Auckland.
Australia may be more expensive, but it offers more job-market depth and more university options. A student who gets a scholarship or chooses a regional university carefully may make Australia more manageable. However, the high cost of major cities and the increased Temporary Graduate visa cost should be included in the long-term budget.
For budget students, New Zealand may be easier to manage if the course is affordable and post-study eligibility is clear. Australia may be worth the higher cost if the student’s field has strong labour-market demand and skilled migration value. The cheapest option is not the country; it is the country, city, university, course, and scholarship combination.
Which Country Is Better for Post-Study Work?
New Zealand may be easier to understand because the Post Study Work Visa can allow eligible graduates to stay and work for up to three years depending on qualification. The rules are tied to what the student studied, the qualification level, the length of study, and application timing. For degree-level students, the route can be straightforward when eligibility is confirmed early.
Australia’s Temporary Graduate visa can be powerful because the labour market is larger, but the rules are more complex. Students must understand streams, age limits, English requirements, study requirements, regional options, and costs. The visa can still support strong outcomes, but it now requires more careful financial and eligibility planning.
If the student wants simplicity, New Zealand may feel better. If the student wants a bigger labour market after graduation, Australia may be better. A student in nursing, engineering, construction, teaching, or IT may find strong post-study value in both countries if the qualification and job pathway are chosen carefully.
Students should verify post-study work eligibility before paying tuition. A degree that does not qualify for the expected visa can weaken the entire plan.
Which Country Is Better for Permanent Residence?
Australia may offer more migration pathways because of its larger skilled migration system, state nomination options, employer sponsorship routes, regional pathways, and points-tested visas. However, those pathways are competitive and occupation-sensitive. Students must plan around age, English scores, skills assessments, work experience, and state demand.
New Zealand may offer a clearer route for students whose job aligns with Green List or Skilled Migrant Category requirements. The Green List can be especially useful because it identifies roles that New Zealand needs, and some roles can lead to residence faster than others. However, the student still needs a qualifying job or job offer, and the smaller job market means fewer openings.
Australia may be stronger for students who want more pathways and a larger labour market. New Zealand may be stronger for students whose field is clearly on the Green List and who prefer a simpler, smaller system. Neither country is easy if the student chooses a weak field or fails to secure skilled employment.
Students should plan permanent residence backward. Start with the occupation, then choose the course, then choose the city, then choose the university. Do not choose the country first and hope the pathway appears later.
Who Should Choose Australia?
Australia is usually better for students who want a larger university system, more course variety, stronger city options, a bigger graduate labour market, and skilled migration planning in occupation-demand fields. It is especially strong for students targeting nursing, healthcare, teaching, engineering, construction, trades, IT, cybersecurity, data science, public health, agriculture, and environmental science.
Australia may also suit students who prefer warmer weather, larger cities, and a more active urban lifestyle. Students who want more part-time job options and internship possibilities may find Australia stronger because of scale. Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, and other cities offer a wider range of employers than most New Zealand cities.
Australia may not suit students who have limited funds, are older and may not meet graduate visa age rules, choose a course with weak skilled migration relevance, or cannot handle a competitive job market. It is also important to budget for high visa and living costs.
Choose Australia if you can answer yes to these questions:
- Can I afford tuition, living costs, health cover, and graduate visa costs?
- Is my course connected to a skilled occupation or strong employer demand?
- Can I meet the Temporary Graduate visa rules after graduation?
- Would a larger job market improve my chances?
- Am I willing to compete in bigger cities or consider regional options?
- Does Australia’s climate, lifestyle, and distance from home fit me?
Who Should Choose New Zealand?
New Zealand is usually better for students who want a smaller study environment, clearer post-study work planning, a calmer lifestyle, and a route connected to specific skill shortages. It may suit students who prefer less crowded cities, nature, outdoor life, and a more manageable student experience.
New Zealand can be strong for students targeting nursing, healthcare, teaching, engineering, construction, agriculture, environmental science, food science, public health, IT, and Green List-connected roles. Students whose course aligns with shortage occupations may have a stronger long-term plan than students choosing general fields with fewer job openings.
New Zealand may not suit students who want a very large job market, broad corporate opportunities, many university choices, or highly specialized sectors. It may also be harder for students who need many part-time work options immediately after arrival, because the economy is smaller.
Choose New Zealand if you can answer yes to these questions:
- Is my qualification eligible for post-study work?
- Does my field connect to New Zealand’s Green List or skilled residence pathways?
- Can I accept a smaller job market in exchange for a calmer environment?
- Is the city affordable enough for my budget?
- Am I flexible about moving to where jobs exist after graduation?
- Does New Zealand’s lifestyle fit my personality and long-term plan?
Common Mistakes Students Make When Comparing Australia and New Zealand
The first mistake is assuming Australia is always better because it is bigger. A larger labour market helps, but it also attracts more competition and higher costs. A student in a weak field may struggle in Australia even with many employers. Bigger does not automatically mean easier.
The second mistake is assuming New Zealand is always easier because it is smaller. A smaller system can feel clearer, but fewer employers can make job hunting harder. New Zealand works best when the student’s field matches real shortages and the student is flexible about location.
Students should avoid these mistakes:
- Choosing based only on scenery or lifestyle.
- Ignoring post-study work eligibility before applying.
- Assuming part-time work will cover tuition.
- Choosing a course with weak skilled migration value.
- Ignoring graduate visa age, English, and cost rules in Australia.
- Ignoring qualification-level rules in New Zealand.
- Comparing countries without comparing cities.
- Assuming study automatically leads to permanent residence.
Best Decision by Student Profile
A student who wants the biggest labour market should usually choose Australia. A student who wants a smaller and calmer study environment may prefer New Zealand. A student in nursing, engineering, teaching, IT, construction, or healthcare can compare both seriously because both countries need skilled workers in many of these areas.
A student on a tight budget should compare both countries carefully and consider lower-cost alternatives before committing. A student with a scholarship may choose either country depending on the award. A student who wants a clear Green List route may prefer New Zealand if their field matches. A student who wants multiple skilled migration options may prefer Australia.
A practical profile guide looks like this:
- Best for larger job market: Australia.
- Best for calmer student lifestyle: New Zealand.
- Best for broad university choice: Australia.
- Best for simpler post-study work understanding: New Zealand.
- Best for occupation-based migration variety: Australia.
- Best for Green List-linked planning: New Zealand.
- Best for warmer climate and bigger cities: Australia.
- Best for outdoor lifestyle and smaller communities: New Zealand.
Final Verdict
Australia is usually better for international students who want a larger university system, more course choices, bigger cities, broader employer access, and skilled migration planning across many occupations. It is especially strong for students in nursing, healthcare, teaching, engineering, construction, IT, cybersecurity, data science, public health, environmental science, and trades. The main challenge is cost, visa rule complexity, competition, and the higher cost of graduate visa planning.
New Zealand is usually better for international students who want a smaller, calmer, more manageable study environment with clear post-study work options and pathways connected to skill shortages. It is especially useful for students in healthcare, nursing, teaching, engineering, construction, agriculture, environmental science, food science, public health, and Green List-related occupations. The main challenge is the smaller job market and fewer university choices.
For applicants, the best answer depends on the student’s field and long-term plan. Choose Australia if scale, employer variety, and skilled migration options matter most. Choose New Zealand if clarity, lifestyle, and shortage-linked pathways matter more. Both countries can be excellent, but neither should be chosen casually without checking course eligibility, visa rules, city costs, and job-market demand.